World Health Organisation (WHO) has estimated that 80% of the people in the world rely on traditional medicines for primary health care needs. Around 400 species are used in Ayurvedic system of medicine (Farnsworth, 1990).
Ayurveda is a science of positive health and its origin is almost as old as human race. Ayurvedic system of medicine deals with maintainance of health, prolongation of healthy and qualitative life and prevention of diseases. The Ayurvedic system of medicine is the integral part of the Indian tradition in which plants and herbs are used not only to cure the diseases, but also to provide a source of minerals and vitamins which give proper health and nutrition to human being. Though, the sources of medicine are plant kingdom, animal kingdom and minerals and metals, yet plants are easily available in nature and can be used according to needs.
Pharmaceutics occupies an important role in Ayurveda. Medicinal preparations are invariably complex mixtures being derived from plants, animal products, minerals and metals. Plants play a dominant part in Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia and are the basic raw material for pharmacopoeial industry for manufacturing single as well as compound formulations, classical formulations and patent drugs.
In the course of time around 2,000 plant species were included in the indigenous Materia Medica which have the medicinal value. The medicinal plant wealth is a treasure of Ayurvedic system of medicine. The effectiveness of medicine depends upon the genuineness of ingredients which are used for the preparation of medicine. Medicinal plants are not only important source of Ayurvedic drugs but also provide a large number of drugs of modern system of medicine.
The Sumerians of the Tigris and Euphrates (present day Iraq) around 4000 B.C. utilized opium, liquorice, thyme, mustard and the chemical element sulphur as medicine. The Babylonians who apparently followed Sumarians in the field, added senna, coriander, saffron, cinnamon and garlic among the other herbs in their formulations. The Egyptians, Mesopotamians and Babylonians have written use of over 700 drugs which included plants like Aloe, wormwood, peppermint, henbane, myrrh, hemp, dogbane and castor. Indian drugs in the pharmaceutical list of Hippocrates proves that they have learnt many of these from Indian sources.
The Yunani system of medicine originated in Greece. The system was developed into an elaborate medical system by the Arabs who gave it a scientific base. In India, Yunani system of medicine was introduced by the Arabs and soon it took firm root in Indian soil and has ever since, been serving vast section of the people. Yunani system is based on humoural theory. The theory was based on four humours-blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The Yunani system of medicine persists on some of these humours. It uses naturally occurring herbs like Abutilon indicum (Linn) Sweet, Acorus calamus Linn, Vitex negundo Linn and Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.
In the first century A.D., Greece produced the forerunner of all modern pharmacopoeias and the most authoritative text on botanical medicine for over a thousand year, “De Materia Medica”. In this book, Dioscoroides (64-120 A.D.) discussed in detail the identification, collection, adulteration and therapeutic uses of several thousands of plants.
The origin of Siddha system of medicine can be traced back from the days of Sangam. This distinct medical science and unique art of healings were probably practised first time in Chennai (Madras) at first millennium A.D. This system owes, as its name suggests, its origin to Siddhars – a class of great poet mystics known as third erudition in herbal medicine. They advocated Yoga as a means of realization of the supreme and utilization of herbs, salt, liquids, corals and pearls as curatives to the ailments. The sages Agasthya, Yogananda and others were the pioneers of Siddha system of medicine. This system is as ancient as the Ayurveda. It is also popular in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia and other South East Asian countries. From literary sources it is known that many Chinese priests came to India and had studied this system from eminent Siddhars named by Bogar. Yacob (Ramadwar) – a scholar of this system of medicine paid his visit to Arabia, Turkey, China and several other countries in the East for spreading the wisdom of the Siddha system of medicine.
At present, Siddha system of medicine is known as Tamil medicine. It has specific remedies for diseases like mycosis, venereal diseases, leucoderma, asthma, leprosy, etc., having use of ash after burning the metal like gold, silver and copper, pearls, conch shells etc. in combination with various salts, minerals and medicinal plants like Aconitum ferox Wallich ex Ser, Acalypha indica L., Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk., Boerhaavia diffusa Linn., Psoralea corylifolia Linn., Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Acorus calamus Linn. etc. The Siddha therapeutic has some original features such as Varmam, Muccukalayam, Nadi-vijnanam and Tukanam which are akin to the Acupuncture and Moxa treatment in China, pulse feeling of Egypt and massage methods of Japan. Siddha practitioners in India are 15,000 in number.
Tibetan medicine follows almost the same principles as mentioned in Ayurvedic system of medicine. Plants like Berberis aristata D.C., Isatis tinctoria L., etc. are used in Tibetan medicine. But, the Tibetan system of medicine has certain special features. According to Yishi Dhonden and Cyatsko Tshering-mind is superior to body. Mind is the architect of all the sufferings and happiness. Body and spirit are the attendants of mind. Tibetan physicians give stress on development of mental power and observances of moral laws. The psychology, ethics and philosophy of Buddhism provide effective means for controlling consciousness and preventing illness.
There is an urgent necessity for making comparative studies of all these Asian system of medicine including the tribal one, for giving better health care to the mass of the developing countries where cheap and effective health care measures are yet to be developed.
The practice of Burmese traditional medicine can be traced back from Sakiya King’s dynasty in North Burma (c.2000 years ago). It is probable that various tribal groups migrated from Tibet into Burma. They have carried with them the practice of using the plants, plant parts, animal organs and extract of minerals for medicinal purpose.
The history of traditional system of Chinese medicine can be traced back from about 200 B.C. One of the most important medicinal works in this system is the Nei-ching-canon of Chinese Medicine. This system is mainly based on integration and modelization of the models of Yin and Yang which are five elements and three leaves, i.e.; Heaven, Earth and Man. The models are set up with Organic Recognition and Therapeutic Recognition. These models practically cover the medico-clinical, the differential diagnosis, treatment, prescription and management of aliments. About 4,941 vascular plants like Artemisia annua Linn., Aleurites montana (Lour.) Wils, Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn., Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druc etc. are used in Chinese system of medicine.
The Vietnamese system of medicine also dates back to 4000 years back and has provided source of development of Chinese system of medicine. During almost 1000 years of Chinese domination of Vietnam, many medicines were exported to China. Vietnamese used hundred of herbs to cure various diseases. They included ginger, beetle, cinnamon etc. during the period 2000 B.C. to 111 B.C. During the period of Chinese invasion 111 B.C. to 938 A.D. many precious medicines such as sandal wood, rhinoceros horn and tortoise shell were commonly used. During the period 939 to 196 A.D. the Buddhism spread widely fighting against superstition. The Vietnam also became free and promoted cultivation of medicinal herbs.
The period between 1000 B.C. to 1200 A.D. was glorious period of Ayurvedic, Buddhist and traditional medicines. However, after 1200 A.D., there was a period of decline in the investigation of local medicinal plants due to the invasion of the Arabs and others, and Arabic medicine which was also based mainly on plants attained more prominence. During this period, many important medicinal plants like senna, isabgol, roselle, chirata, opium etc. were introduced into India by them.
From 1800 A.D. onwards, the European invasion resulted in the introduction of the Western Allopathic system in India and this also included the use of the number of medicinal plants of proven therapeutic value.
In India, Egypt and Sudan, around 70 per cent of the rural people use traditional medicine. Similar situation exists in a large number of developing countries. In India and China, 60 percent of the people affected with cholera and malaria are treated with herbal medicines. In these countries the market for traditional medicines is US $ 500 million, while Western type medicine account for only US $ 300. In Singapore, 50 percent and in Australia, 60 percent of population uses alternative medicine. Around 17,000 herbal products are registered in these countries. In Belgium, 40 percent contemporary and 84 percent home medicines and 74 percent acupuncture medicine is utilized. In France, 50 percent of the people take advantage of complementary medicine. In Germany, 10,000 to 13,000 alternative medical practitioners are thriving well and 75 percent of them utilize complementary medicines. 77 percent of pain clinics utilize acupuncture. In UK, 90 percent of the complementary medical practitioners utilize osteopathy and acupuncture. In US, where in 1990 only 30 percent of the people were utilizing complementary medicines, in 1997 it grew to 40 percent. With increasing use of traditional medicines globally, attempts are also underway to discover the cure of HIV in the traditional medical system (Kumar, 2000a).
India has long history of researches on Ayurvedic medicine. Recently, several studies have been conducted on Ayurvedic medicinal plants curing different ailments. Gupta and Kumar (2000, 2002) have worked on Ayurvedic crude drugs of diabetes.
India has 90 million ha of waste land, out of which around 60% lies in semi arid region of Rajasthan. The state of Rajasthan has total land area of about 3,42,239 km2, out of which about 1,96,100 km2 is arid and rest is semi arid region. Since, these areas are agriculturally unproductive, they can be used for raising energy plantations (Anonymous, 1981; Roy and Kumar, 1995 and Kumar, 2000b).
The state of Rajasthan is situated between 23°3 and30°12 North latitude and 69°30 and 73°71 East latitude. The forest of Rajasthan covers 11% of the total areas. This forest includes roughly 7% of depleted and denuded forest and the remaining area is fairly well stocked. The physical features of Rajasthan are characterized by the Aravalli and to some extent by the Vindhyan formation. The Aravalli hills divide the state in two parts, North Western portion with a total area of 3,08,591 km2 has the major portion measuring about 1,20,983 km2 in the form of sand dunes. Only 2% of the total area of the region is under forest cover. The South Eastern part is comparatively productive and around 20% of the area is under forest cover. As compared to the all Indian average value of 1.4 ha per capita forest area, Rajasthan has the lowest value (0.01) ha. In comparison to the world average rainfall increment of forest of 2.1 m3 per ha, India’s average is only 0.5 m3 per ha (Ritu, 1998).
Aravallis, remnant of one of the earth’s most ancient mountain ranges, diagonally intersect the state of Rajasthan, end to end stretching from Banas Kantha in North Gujarat to Delhi for a distance of 692 kms. Biodiversity of Rajasthan is related with the Aravalli hills and rainfall.
The major families in which medicinal plants occur are Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Apiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae. Drugs are derived from trees, shrubs and herbs. Drugs are made from fruits (Solanum nigrum Linn.), flowers (Butea monosperma Lamk (Taub), Bauhinia veriegata Linn.), leaves (Senna, Datura, Periwinkle, Tylophora), stems (Liquorice, Ginger, Dioscorea, Garlic), roots (Rauwolfia, Periwinkle, Ginseng), seeds (Isabgol, Abrus, Nux vomica) and even bark (Cinchona). Although, early men and the primitive civilizations had discovered over 3,000 species of plants of economic uses, mostly as a source of food, only some 200 species have been domesticated by the modern society and only about 30 species are in cultivation practice world wide as a major source of food. Among the medicinal plants, out of 30,000 species estimated to be used by the indigenous and ethnic societies of world, around 10,000 have been used by the traditional systems of medicine of respective countries such as in Ayurveda, Siddha, Yunani and Homeopathy medicines in India. About 150 species have also entered into the global market to be used in modern medicine, as several valuable chemical compounds of significant biological actions have been discovered in them.
Some forest species like Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. Ex. Kurz.), Brahomakomal (Saussurea lappa (Dcne.) CB Clarke) etc. are endangered or threatened species. A list of most commonly used medicinal plants is given in Table-1.
The age old Indian systems of medicine, have been neglected mainly because of the rapid expansion of the Allopathic system of medical treatment. This is despite the fact that our country has a long history of local health traditions, which are backed by thousands of scriptures left behind by practitioners of these systems of medicine.
Now the traditional Indian system of medicine can be broadly classified into the empirical forms of folk medicine which are village based, region-specific, indigenous herb based, local resources based and in many cases, community-specific. The other system called the Shastriya stream which includes the Ayurveda, Siddha and Yunani systems of medicine is more complicated and elaborate with theoretical and research findings.
The vast agroclimatic conditions of India make it an ideal place for the luxuriant growth of flora and fauna. There has been a tremendous upsurge in the demand for phytopharmaceutical, raw medicinal herbs and vegetable drugs of Indian origin from the Western nations. There is also an increase in domestic demand for raw material used for perfumeries, pharmacies and biopesticidal units. The demand for traditional herbal drugs is also increasing rapidly mainly because of the harmful effects of synthetic chemical drugs, and also because of an expansion of pharmacies manufacturing natural drug formulations (Sukhdev, 1983).
Several of the herbal drugs used by the traditional folk healers since long have proved to be of great biological significance and modern researches have convincingly established their medicinal property and restored their credibility which has been eroded with the coming of the modern synthetic medicines. Further studies on the phytochemistry of other herbal drugs used by the traditional folk healers would reveal some more valuable chemical compounds of greater biological significance not yet known to the world of medicine. A particular herb which is being used by a traditional folk healers as medicine for the treatment of some ailment may be of considerable significance for other ailments also. Further researches have revealed that a particular herb is not only useful in those ailments for which they were being used by them for long time, but also for other ailments about which was not known either to them or to the science of medicine.
But the future of traditional medicine which had a glorious history in our country since the time of Charaka and Sushruta seemed to be fading out primarily due to the onslaught of the modern medicine and also apathy of the government. The herbal drugs had badly suffered in preference to the fast acting synthetic drugs of the modern medicine. Fortunately, people are getting conscious of the grave side effect of the modern synthetic medicine and herbs are once again staging a dramatic comeback. The herbal medicines are beginning to find its due place and recognition in the society which it rightly deserved.
With the introduction of Western civilization during the British rule, the Western medicine became popular due to its spectacular achievements in the surgical specialities. After independence, a spirit of inquiry and investigation and research gained some momentum to develop Ayurvedic system of medicine. During the last 50 years several committees have been appointed by the government of India to resolve the problem of controversial drugs. Recently, government of India has established a separate department of Indian system of medicine and Homeopathy for its development. Ayurvedic system of medicine is now passing through an active phase of development. Newer steps are being taken to develop Ayurveda as a scientific discipline for the health care of the country and to serve the humanity in a better way.
At present moment, the pharmaceutical industries are giving much importance to Indian system of medicine to find out possible remedies because synthetic drug preparations takes lot of time and is a tidious jobs.
The research on herbal drugs has extended to the Western countries also to find out the chemical structure and pharmacological action. There is a world trend to a greater use of herbal medicine and in recent years there has been a many fold expansion of herbal drug industry in our country. Consequently the demand of plant material has been increased.
World Health Organisation (WHO) also encourages herbal remedies in global health care programme because such drugs are easily available at low cost and comparatively safe. In the wake of worldwide interest in herbal drugs, it is very essential that only quality products enter the market. Herbal medicine represent a substantial portion of the global drug market.
During the present investigations, attempts were made to find out use of traditional medicinal system including tribal and non tribal to cure different ailments in various ways. The medicinal plants are generally collected from the fields and utilized as crude drugs. However, increasing demands of herbal drugs are leading to depletion of medicinal plants from the fields and have endangered certain plant species. This has lead to the necessity to study the growth and physiology of medicinal plants and factors affecting their propagation, productivity and active ingredients. The growth and productivity of medicinal plants are affected by physico-chemical, nutritional and growth regulators. Present investigations were undertaken with an object to study the ethnobotany, pharmacognosty, growth and physiology of some medicinal plants of semi-arid regions.
Table-1 : List of some important medicinal plants common in various traditional system of medicine
S. No. Botanical Name Ayurvedic Name Tibbi Name Siddha Name Tribal Name
1. Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Babul Schmaghe-e-arabi Randoalu Gubul-daru
2. Achyranthes aspera Linn. Apang Apamaga Naayurivi Rechari
3. Acorus calamus Linn. Bach Vaj-e-turki Vasambu Nai-naglea
4. Allium sativum Linn. Lashuna Seer Vallaipondu -
5. Aloe vera Linn. Ghrtia Kumari Sxbr Soathukttalai -
6. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Sapta Sapta Aalilai Chatini-daru
7. Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall ex. Nees Kirata Chirata Nilava embu Bhui-nimb
8. Aristolochia indica Linn. Iswar mul Zarawand Garudakkodi Isher-mul
9. Asparagus adscendens Roxb. Musli - - -
10. Aspargus racemosus Willd. Satimuli Satavar Thannirvittaan Gai-sira
11. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Nimba Neem Vaeppa Nim-daru
12. Bauhinia vahlii, W and A Jallur - - Sehari
13. Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst Nira-brahmi - - -
14. Bauhinia variegata Linn. Ashmantaka - - Koch-nar
15. Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Punarnava Ispast Mookirattai Kecho-ara
16. Butea monosperma Lamk. (Taub) Palas Samaghe-e-dhak Porasu Palas-bahu
17. Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R.Br. Akra Madar Euukku Orakka Kulators
18. Cannabis sativa Linn. Bhang Bhang Pangi Bhang
19. Cardiospermum helicacabum Linn. Karnasphota Habulqibi Mudakotta Merom-med-nari
20. Carica papaya Linn. Papita Papita Pappaoli Papaw
21. Cassia fistula Linn. Suvaruaka Khiyarshambar Konnai Punden
22. Centella asiatica Linn. Madnuka parnui Indian Pennywort Vallaari -
23. Coriandrum sativum Linn. Dhanyak Kish Dhaniya -
24. Cyperus rotundus Linn. Mutha Sadekuti Kokarai -
25. Datura metel Linn. Dhustura Datura Oomathai Marang-tunture
26. Eclipta alba (L.) Hossk. Bhringa-raj Bhangra Kesuta Prii-kesari
27. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. f. Adiphalla Amla Nelli Miral-daru
28. Euphorbia hirta Linn. Pusitoa Doodhi Khrud Ammaarpachchairs -
29. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. Sehunda - - Kanta-manasa
30. Helicteres isora Linn. Mrigashinga Moror phalli Karuvi Atmura
31. Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth) A. DC. Kutaja - - Padal
32. Justicia adhatoda Linn. Vasak Aroosa Adhathodai -
33. Mucuna pruriens (L.) D.C. Atmagupta Koonch Poonaikaali Alkusi
34. Ocimum sanctum Linn. Tulsi Raihan Tulsia Bir-tulsi
35. Phyllanthus fraternus Webster Bhui-amlaki Jamin Arunelli Mui-ara
36. Piper betle Linn. Tombuli Pan Vettiali -
37. Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Chitralla Shitraj Kizhangu Chitra Chitaparu
38. Pterocarpus marsupium Linn. Pitusara Pitsal Vaengai -
39. Rauwolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex. Kurz. Sarpagandha Chiran Chivan. Ameelpadi Simjenagaara-ba
40. Ricinus communis Linn. Eranda Reri Kottamusthu Digherandi
41. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De. Wilde Asoka Asoka - -
42. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrod. Wendl Kantakari Katei Kauttan -
43. Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. Visha-mushti Kuchila Yetti Kuchila
44. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wt and Arn. Arjuna Arjuna Vella-maruthan Gara-hatana
45. Terminalia chebula (Gaert) Retz. Haritaki Haela Kadukkaay Hora-dary
46. Tribulus terrestris Linn. Gokshur Khar-e-khask Niranji -
47. Vitex negundo Linn. Nirgundi Shambhalu Nochi Bengunia
48. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Asvakandika Asgandnagori Aswagomdi Care-su
49. Zingiber officinale Rosc. Adraka Zanjabeel Injchi Adi
50. Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. - - - Dodari
