The remaining vulture population in the North West Rajasthan range suffers an increased vulnerability due to:

•Isolated subpopulations
•Very large foraging areas (local and non-local threats)
•Very low effective population sizes
•Presumably very few genetic interactions
•Low natural reproductive rate
•Slow generation cycle
•Low potential for natural re-colonization
•Intensive philopatric behaviour

Therefore, management and conservation activities require a pan-Eurasian scale. The aim of this Action Plan is to reduce the population decrease of the Eurasian Griffon Vulture in the North West Rajasthan Range and to inverse current trends in population dynamics. Over the long term, a self-sustaining (meta-) population should be achieved with a re-colonization of the former range (where habitats are still suitable).

We also expect highly beneficial effects for all other vulture species in the geographic region.

Objectives:

Although certain aims and objectives may affect more than one of the following
Categories, we structured them in-

i) Conservation and management
ii) Monitoring
iii) Research needs

This seems appropriate because their implementation will involve different NGOs and governmental institutions according to their specific competence.

1. Conservation and management

Conservation and management needs address the following issues:

Poisoning – essential

•Safe food supply (feeding stations)
•Effective protection of livestock against predators
•Law enforcement
•Implement political pressure on a EU-Level
•Establish an anti-poisoning working group
•Control of poisons and effective regulations
•Anti-poisoning campaign and public awareness
•Monitoring of poisoning events and food quality (identification and analyses)
•Ban of lead bullets

Poisoning is a complex problem which addresses a wide spectrum of issues. These include the reinforcement of existing laws, control of the use of poison and implementation of effective regulations, an anti-poisoning campaign with profound education about the ecological consequences involved in the use of poison and the ecological role of vultures, the ban of lead-bullets for hunting (feeding from remains) and the protection of livestock against natural predators as an alternative to poisoned baits (suitable guarding dogs can be an effective measure in this context).

Protection of habitat and food supply - high

•Feeding stations for enough food supply
•Law enforcement: EU-restrictions, veterinarian and biological needs
•Promotion of traditional land use / restoration of sustainable livestock numbers
•Restoration of populations of wild ungulates
•Control of visitor flow / sporting activities
•Restriction of urbanisation and industrial exploitation

The supply of safe and sufficient food can currently only be guaranteed by artificial feeding sites (“vulture restaurants”) in most parts of the Eurasian range. As most vulture species are depending on domesticated livestock anyway, it makes not such a big difference if food supply is provided in a dispersed manner through natural mortality causes or at specific sites which have the big advantage of a controlled operation (and additionally for monitoring purposes).
However, for the maintenance of a natural foraging behaviour which was of special importance for the evolution of vultures more natural feeding habits should be aspired and might be essential. Therefore, the promotion of extensive livestock farming, especially transhumance practices, are important and can even be interpreted as a co-evolutional result between traditional forms of human land-use and vultures and other scavengers.

For the same reason, the restoration of wild ungulate populations is important. Those have greatly been decimated by over harvesting and due to questionable forest management policies.
Disturbance has been documented as the cause for the extinction of some breeding colonies and the abandonment of frequently cliffs used as roosting sites. Therefore, the control of recreational and sporting activities close to breeding sites and other suitable cliffs such as climbing, paragliding, curiosity and bathing/diving (on Mediterranean islands) is an important issue.

Basically, restricted access is only a matter of local and temporal requirements. In few occasions, mining activities have been reported to be critical in this context. Building of infrastructure and urbanisation can result in a severe reduction of habitat suitability in sensitive breeding or foraging areas.

Power lines (electrocution and collision), overhead cables, and wind turbines - high

•Modify existing electricity poles and wires with protective devices
•Implementation of safe electricity pole design
•Avoid further buildings of overhead cable structures
•Optimised wind turbines (design and location)

Losses caused by electrocution or collision, overhead cables and wind turbines can be substantial. Therefore, the design of safe electricity poles is an important measure and adequate constructions can eliminate any risk. However, precaution measures to avoid collision with over-head cables are much more difficult and will always represent a certain mortality risk. In this context, urbanisation of remote areas can have adverse effects on vulture populations.

The same holds true for wind turbines which have caused huge losses at various places. Efforts focussing on an optimised design of such structures have not been very efficient in reducing mortality rates so far.

Illegal Shooting - medium (locally high)

Although little is known about this factor, illegal shooting is currently assessed as a problem of medium importance. Cases have been documented, but it is difficult to tell anything about the estimated number of unknown cases. Locally the problem can be of high importance. Possible actions are subject of law enforcement and must be implemented locally.

Public awareness in general – medium

Allthough, varying locally to a big extent, the knowledge about the ecology of vultures and the poisoning issue is generally not very high. A multilingual folder focussing on the ecological role of vultures, all aspects of the poisoning issue and the geographical scope of the vulture issue would be a helpful tool for a public awareness campaign and is suggested as an important tool. Other actions must be implemented locally.

Taking of Eggs – low

Taking of eggs is also an issue where it is very difficult to estimate the number of unknown cases. However, the possible effect was assumed by all experts to be low.
Possible actions are subject of law enforcement and must be implemented locally.

2. Monitoring

•Population trends (breeding pairs, productivity, no. fledglings, no. at feeding sites)
•Pathological monitoring of live and dead birds (mortality causes)
•Central database
•Habitat suitability / limiting factors

Monitoring of population trends, breeding success, movements of marked birds and mortality causes is essential and an urgent requirement in order to set (or correct) the adequate management priorities. The corresponding objectives include standardized and coordinated Marking Program, sampling of population trend, breeding success and movements of marked birds, integrated Data Base.

Due to the risk which is imposed by the population crash of Gyps vultures on the Indian subcontinent, a special monitoring concern has to be focussed along potential Eurasian migration routes.

Research needs:

•Population Viability Analyses
•Space / habitat use patterns (population interactions, risk identification,
Juvenile dispersal)
•Evaluation of management priorities for present and potential habitats
•Medical and toxicological research (post mortem examinations)
•Analyses of genetic variation (Population structure, reintroductions)
•Final confirmation of causes for the crash of Gyps-populations in India

Currently, there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of many aspects of Griffon Vulture biology which limit our capabilities concerning certain management aspects. One of the most relevant aspects in this context addresses population interactions throughout the distribution range. Various observations of marked individuals give an idea about large scale movements, juvenile dispersal and migration routes. However, we have currently no idea if these movements result in interactions on a population level such as gene flow.

Therefore, genetic analyses of different populations are of great importance. They are also relevant for potential restocking and/or reintroduction projects as the diversity of the gene pool will also have consequences for the decision which individuals are suitable for being released to the wild in the Eastern European/Mediterranean range.

A thorough analysis of mortality causes (post-mortem examinations) and of the ultimate cause of the Gyps vulture population crash in Asia will also be of utmost importance for Griffon vulture research.

3. Logistic aspects

•Optimum information flow between groups
•Monitoring network
•Feeding site management (network needed)
•Education